PFET nonvolatile memory

ABSTRACT

A non-volatile memory integrated circuit includes multiple memory cells, each memory cell including a first MOS transistor, a first control capacitor, and a first floating gate coupled to the first MOS transistor and the first control capacitor. A first read/write control signal is provided having at least a first state and a second state and coupled the first MOS transistor. When the control signal is in the first state, the memory cell is configured for readout, and when the control signal is in the second state, the memory cell is configured for writing. Both single-ended and differential memory cells are described. Arrays of such nonvolatile memory cells are also described.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/055,368, filed on May 22, 2008, in the name of inventor Alberto Pesavento, entitled “Cell for Non-Volatile Memory,” and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/061,004, filed on Jun. 12, 2008, in the name of inventor Alberto Pesavento, entitled “Cell for Non-Volatile Memory,” the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes. Both of these provisional applications are commonly assigned herewith.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to nonvolatile memory. More particularly, the present invention relates to single-ended and differential-type nonvolatile memory using floating-gate p-channel field effect transistors (pFETs) to store information as electric charge.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Nonvolatile memory (NVM) is an important form of memory in today's electronic circuits. NVM is used to store serial number information, security information, settings, parameters, computer instructions (firmware), and the like. Reprogrammable NVM is particularly important, particularly in the field of tags such as RFID (radio frequency identification) tags which store information inexpensively and can be can be remotely sensed without the need to complete an actual circuit with the RFID tag itself. Such tags lack their own power supply and are powered instead by current rectified from a scanner's read-carrier RF signal received from an RFID reader/scanner.

OVERVIEW

A non-volatile memory integrated circuit includes multiple memory cells, each memory cell including a first MOS transistor, a first control capacitor, and a first floating gate coupled to the first MOS transistor and the first control capacitor. A first read/write control signal is provided having at least a first state and a second state and coupled the first MOS transistor. When the control signal is in the first state, the memory cell is configured for readout, and when the control signal is in the second state, the memory cell is configured for writing. Both single-ended and differential memory cells are described. Arrays of such nonvolatile memory cells are also described.

Other aspects of the inventions are described and claimed below, and a further understanding of the nature and advantages of the inventions may be realized by reference to the remaining portions of the specification and the attached drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated into and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate one or more embodiments of the present invention and, together with the detailed description, serve to explain the principles and implementations of the invention.

In the drawings:

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a non-volatile memory cell.

FIG. 2A is a waveform diagram showing waveforms used to access the non-volatile memory cell.

FIG. 2B is a waveform diagram showing waveforms used to access the non-volatile memory cell in another embodiment.

FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of another non-volatile memory cell.

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of a further non-volatile memory cell.

FIG. 5A is a waveform diagram illustrating waveforms used to write a known non-volatile memory cell.

FIG. 5B is a waveform diagram illustrating waveforms used to write the non-volatile memory cell of FIG. 1.

FIG. 6 is a diagram representing one manner of write pre-initialization.

FIG. 7 is a diagram representing another manner of write pre-initialization.

FIG. 8A is a diagram illustrating write disturb during a first write phase.

FIG. 8B is diagram illustrating write disturb during a second write phase.

FIG. 9A is diagram illustrating reduced write disturb during a first write phase.

FIG. 9B is diagram illustrating reduced write disturb during a second write phase.

FIG. 10 is a waveform diagram illustrating write disturb during first and second phases.

FIG. 11 is a waveform diagram illustrating reduced write disturb during first and second phases.

FIG. 12 is a diagram of one possible layout of the memory cell of FIG. 1.

FIG. 13 is diagram of another possible layout of the memory cell of FIG. 1.

FIG. 14 is a diagram of a differential memory array using the cell layout of FIG. 13.

FIG. 15 is a diagram of a single-ended memory array using the cell layout of FIG. 13.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Embodiments of the present invention described in the following detailed description are directed at floating-gate nonvolatile memory cells having pFET readout transistors. Those of ordinary skill in the art will realize that the detailed description is illustrative only and is not intended to restrict the scope of the claimed inventions in any way. Other embodiments of the present invention, beyond those embodiments described in the detailed description, will readily suggest themselves to those of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of this disclosure. Reference will now be made in detail to implementations of the present invention as illustrated in the accompanying drawings. Where appropriate, the same reference indicators will be used throughout the drawings and the following detailed description to refer to the same or similar parts.

In the interest of clarity, not all of the routine features of the implementations described herein are shown and described. It will, of course, be appreciated that in the development of any such actual implementation, numerous implementation-specific decisions must be made in order to achieve the developer's specific goals, such as compliance with application- and business-related constraints, and that these specific goals will vary from one implementation to another and from one developer to another. Moreover, it will be appreciated that such a development effort might be complex and time-consuming, but would nevertheless be a routine undertaking of engineering for those of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of this disclosure.

As used herein, the symbol n+ indicates an n-doped semiconductor material typically having a doping level of n-type dopants on the order of 10²¹ atoms per cubic centimeter. The symbol n− indicates an n-doped semiconductor material typically having a doping level on the order of 10¹⁷ atoms per cubic centimeter. The symbol p+ indicates a p-doped semiconductor material typically having a doping level of p-type dopants on the order of 10²¹ atoms per cubic centimeter. The symbol p− indicates a p-doped semiconductor material typically having a doping level on the order of 10¹⁷ atoms per cubic centimeter for p− wells and a doping level on the order of 10¹⁵ atoms per cubic centimeter for p-substrate material. Those of ordinary skill in the art will now realize that the devices described herein may be formed on a conventional semiconductor substrate or they may as easily be formed as a thin film transistor (TFT) above the substrate, or in silicon on an insulator (SOI) such as glass (SOG), sapphire (SOS), or other substrates as known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Such persons of ordinary skill in the art will now also realize that a range of doping concentrations around those described above will also work. Essentially, any process capable of forming pFETs and nFETs will work. Doped regions may be diffusions or they may be implanted.

A number of circuits that may be used as NVM cells and arrays for such cells are described in detail below. These NVM circuits are able to store information by modifying a charge (i.e., by adding or removing electrons) stored on a floating gate of one or more pFET transistors. In digital implementations, the state (i.e., either a “1” or a “0”) of the memory cell is read by measuring the current of some of the pFETs in the circuit. The use of pFETs instead of nFETs (n-channel FETs) offers better data retention, higher endurance and requires no additional processing steps beyond what is available in standard logic CMOS processes. Obviously, if desired, these circuits can be fabricated in as complicated a process as desired, however, they are all capable of being fabricated in single-poly (single layer of polysilicon) logic CMOS processes as supported by virtually all semiconductor foundries operating today. Conventional FLASH and EEPROM NVM require special process steps beyond those of logic CMOS and are, consequently, harder and more expensive to fabricate. Applications that require up to several kilobytes of NVM on the same chip with other circuitry and/or require low cost fabrication are ideal candidates for the circuits discussed herein.

Turning now to FIG. 1, a basic differential pFET NVM memory cell 10 is illustrated. This cell has two floating gates denoted Fg₀ and Fg₁. By storing a different amount of electrons on the two floating gates it is possible to establish a voltage differential between the two floating gates. When a suitable voltage is applied to the signal line denoted “REN,” signals are read out on data lines DL1 and DL0 that may be used to discern the logic value stored in the cell. For example, a difference in the readout currents may be present and a sense amplifier such as a conventional current sense amplifier (not shown) may consequently be used to discern the logic value stored in the cell. Readout transistors Ms1 and Ms0 are coupled in series with the transistors M1 and M0, respectively, for this purpose. One channel electrode of the transistor Ms1 is connected to a channel electrode of the transistor M1 at a node N1. A gate electrode of the transistor Ms1 is connected to a signal line RSB. Similarly, one channel electrode of the transistor Ms0 is connected to a channel electrode of the transistor M0 at a node N0. A gate electrode of the transistor Ms1 is also connected to the signal line RSB.

As shown in FIG. 1, a capacitor C1 and a transistor M1 have floating gate Fg₁ in common. A capacitor C0 and a transistor M0 have floating gate Fg₀ in common. The signal line REN is the voltage terminal for the transistors M1 and M0; a signal line D1 is the voltage terminal for the capacitor C1; and a signal line D0 is the voltage terminal for the capacitor C0. The capacitors C1 and C0 may be realized as shorted pFETs having their source, drain and well connections are all tied together. The capacitors C1 and C0, which are used as control capacitors, may instead be constructed as poly-poly, or poly-metal capacitors. Metal-metal capacitors can also be used for the control capacitor structures, although with existing fabrication processes this would reduce the memory retention time due to leakage from the poly contact and the metal inter-layer dielectric. The transistors M1 and M0 and the capacitors C1 and C0 may also be constructed using other types of transistors, such as nFETs. By applying the appropriate voltages to terminals signal lines REN, D1 and D0, a sufficiently large electric field can be established across the oxide dielectric of the pFETs M1 or M0 connected to respective floating gates Fg₀, Fg₁ so that the well-known mechanism of Fowler-Nordheim (FN) tunneling may be used to pass electrons through the oxide dielectric of the transistors M1 or M0.

When the memory cell of FIG. 1 is used to form a memory array organized in rows and columns, the signals lines REN and RSB may be common for a given row. The signals lines D1 and D0 and DL1 and DL0 may be common for a given column.

In order to establish a large electric field across one of the pFETs' oxides, the capacitors C1 and C0 should be made sufficiently large to acts as control capacitors for the respective floating gates Fg₀, Fg₁, as described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 7,221,596.

The process for adding and removing electrons from a floating gate Fg may be understood with reference to the following Table I, wherein X signifies a “don't care” condition and N/A signifies “not applicable:”

TABLE I Condition DIRECTION REN RSB D1 D0 FG1 FG0 BIASING IDLE X VDD VDD 0 0 X X N/A READ unselected X VDD VDD 0 0 X X N/A READ selected X VDD 0 0 0 X X N/A WRITE unselected X HV2 HV2 X X unchanged unchanged X WRITE “1” 1 HV4 HV4 HV4 0 unchanged Removing e- R(1) WRITE “1” 0 0 HV2 HV4 0 Adding e- unchanged A(1) WRITE “0” 1 HV4 HV4 0 HV4 Removing e- unchanged R(0) WRITE “0” 0 0 HV2 0 HV4 unchanged Adding e- A(0)

In an IDLE condition, the signal lines REN and RSB are set to VDD, and the signal lines D1 and D0 are set to 0. The same is true of a READ unselected condition in which a read operation is performed but on a different cell than the current cell. To read the contents of the current cell, the signal line RSB is set to 0, causing the transistors Ms1 and Ms0 of FIG. 1 to conduct.

In a WRITE unselected condition, the signal line REN and the signal line RSB are set to a voltage HV2 as illustrated in FIG. 2A. The charge on the floating gates Fg₀, Fg₁, remains unchanged.

Of particular interest are the bottom four rows of TABLE I, shaded in gray. A WRITE “1” condition has two different directions associated with it, designated (arbitrarily) DIRECTION 1 and DIRECTION 0. During a WRITE “1” DIRECTION 1 operation, charged is removed from the floating gate Fg₀, while the charge condition of the floating gate Fg₁ remains unchanged. This is accomplished by setting the signals lines REN, RSB and D1 to a voltage HV4 as illustrated in FIG. 2A, and setting the signal line D0 to 0. This biasing condition is designated as R(1), indicating that charge is being removed incident to writing a “1” value. During a WRITE “1” DIRECTION 0 operation, charged is added to the floating gate Fg₁, while the charge condition of the floating gate Fg₀ remains unchanged. This is accomplished by setting the signals line RSB to the voltage HV2 and the signal line D1 to the voltage HV4 as illustrated in FIG. 2A, and setting the signal lines REN and D0 to 0. This biasing condition is designated as A(1), indicating that charge is being added incident to writing a “1” value. The writing of a “1” is complete when both the WRITE “1” DIRECTION 1 operation and the WRITE “1” DIRECTION 0 operation, which are performed in succession, have been completed at least one time and preferably multiple times as described more fully hereinafter.

To write a “0,” the WRITE “0” DIRECTION 1 operation and the WRITE “0” DIRECTION 0 operation are performed in succession under the bias conditions R(0) and A(0), as indicated in TABLE 1. During the WRITE “0” DIRECTION 1 operation, charge is removed from the floating gate Fg₁, while the charge condition of Fg₀ remains unchanged. During the WRITE “0” DIRECTION 0 operation, charge is removed from the floating gate Fg₀, while the charge condition of Fg₁ remains unchanged.

Note in TABLE 1 that the signal line REN applied to the channel electrodes of the transistors M1 and M0 is not constant but rather is set to various different values depending on the operation being performed (for READ operations, VDD; for WRITE operations, 0, HV2 or HV4). The signal on REN is therefore referred to at times herein as a “read/write control signal.”

The particular voltage values in the example of FIG. 2A are intended to be just an example. The real values will depend upon various factors such as oxide thickness and quality, desired program time, endurance and retention requirements, and the fabrication process used and are well within the skills of those of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of this disclosure.

The transistors Ms1 and Ms0 of FIG. 1, shown as pFETs, can be pFETs or nFET with high voltage capabilities (such as native drain nFETs). High voltage capability is needed in the embodiment described because when REN is high, these transistors have high voltage placed on their drain electrodes. In some embodiments, additional transistors may be provided to alleviate the potential diode breakdown problem from the source electrodes of the transistors MS1 and MS0 to the drain lines DL1 and DL0. One such arrangement is illustrated in FIG. 3, in which transistors Ms3 and Ms2 are coupled in series with the transistors Ms1 and Ms0, respectively. A signal line RS is provided that carries the logical inverse value of the signal carried by the signal line RSB and is coupled to gate electrodes of the transistors Ms3 and Ms2.

Improved idle disturb performance (disturbance of the charge conditions of floating gate electrodes during the IDLE condition) may be achieved by providing a separate WELL signal line coupled to the well electrodes of the transistors M1, M0, Ms1 and Ms0. This arrangement is illustrated in FIG. 4. The difference between the cell of FIG. 4 and the cell of FIG. 1 is that the well of at least some of the FET devices is not controlled directly by signal REN, but from a different signal (WELL) in the FIG. 4 embodiment. This permits more freedom in the choice of biasing condition during various states of operation. In the embodiment of FIG. 4, the REN and RSB signals are common for a given row of an array of like memory cells; the D1 and D0 signals are common for a given column of like memory cells and the WELL signal can be shared by all like memory cells in the array.

The described cells may be operated in differential fashion or single-ended fashion as described in greater detail hereinafter. Differential memory cell operation is advantageous because it allows the doubling of the storage window as compared to a single-ended memory cell. A single-ended approach, on the other hand, has the benefit of reducing by approximately half the number of transistors in the memory cell thus providing an advantage with respect to the differential version in terms of area and cost. Differential memory is particularly advantageous in situations where reliable reference voltage sources are not readily available, such as in portable devices, remotely powered devices (such as RFiD tags and security cards), and the like.

FIGS. 5A and 5B compare a write cycle of one known non-volatile memory cell with a write cycle that may be used with the non-volatile memory cell of FIG. 1. In the case of the known non-volatile memory cell, during the course of the write cycle, verify cycles (which involves applying the high-voltage until a read operation on the memory cell reports that the desired logic value is stored in the cell) and tunneling enable cycles are alternated for total of, in the illustrated embodiment, four verify cycles and four tunneling enable cycles. During tunneling enable cycles, biasing values are place on the signal lines of the cells, including the voltage values HV2 and HV4.

For technical reasons (to avoid overstressing the oxide with excess tunneling current) and practical reasons (limitation of the charge pump supplying the high-voltage) the high-voltage applied to program the cell is not held constant but rather is applied with a ramp-like profile. It is possible to perform a timed program operation where the high-voltage is applied for a certain amount of time that is deemed sufficient to tunnel the right amount of charge to and from the floating gates. This can be problematic where transistors are not precisely identical throughout an array or chip as size or conductivity differences may lead one cell to require a longer amount of time to achieve the same state as another cell. Another approach involves applying the high-voltage until a read operation on the memory cell reports that the desired logic value is stored in the cell. This does not pose any technical problems because the time it takes to read the cells is much less than the time it takes to write them.

During writing of the known memory cell as illustrated in FIG. 5A, because the cell is of a more complex construction, during a tunneling enable operation, charge is both added to and removed from opposite ones of the floating gates Fg₀, Fg₁ as a function of the data value being written. This simultaneous addition and removal of charge as a function of the data value being written is indicated in FIG. 5A as “AR(D).” That is, Addition of charge & Removal of charge (as a function of Data) is abbreviated as AR(D).

During writing of the memory cell of FIG. 1 as illustrated in FIG. 5B, because the cell is of simpler construction, during a tunneling enable operation, charge is either added to or removed one of the floating gates Fg₀, Fg₁ as a function of the data value being written. This alternating addition and removal of charge as a function of the data value being written is indicated in FIG. 5B as “A(D)” and “R(D),” respectively.

In certain RFiD applications of the memory cell (such as in-line testing) WRITE speed is very important. In these applications, a writing of an Electronic Product Code (EPC) might be required to be completed within a maximum of 10 ms, for example. For the same ramp rate (i.e. oxide stress) the WRITE time is double in FIG. 5B as compared to FIG. 5A (2*N tunneling pulses compared to only N). In instances where all of the bits of a word of data are written simultaneously, one way to increase WRITE speed is to increase (i.e. double) the word size (e.g., 16 bits→32 bits).

Another way to increase WRITE speed is to re-initialize EPC rows at wafer production such that only one-step writing is required in the field, as illustrated in FIGS. 6 and 7. In FIG. 6, rows are initialized at the manufacturing stage by removing electrons from both of the floating gates of each cell. This is accomplished by performing the operations R(0) and R(1) in succession (at least once, and preferably multiple times) for each memory cell. As a result, each memory cell is placed in an undetermined state in which all floating gates are “off” (i.e., in a minimum-charge state). In the field, a WRITE may be performed by simply adding electrons to the appropriate floating gates, by performing the operation A(D). Alternatively, as illustrated in FIG. 7, during initialization, all of the floating gates may be placed in the “on” condition (i.e., in a maximum-charge state). In the field, a WRITE may be performed by simply removing electrons from the appropriate floating gates, by performing the operation R(D).

With the row-select transistors Ms1 and Ms0 embedded in the nonvolatile memory cells it is possible to array the cells in a row-column configuration. A simple configuration of a single column of two memory cells is depicted in FIG. 8A. Additional readout circuit for the column is provided in the form of transistors MDL1 and MDL1 and signals lines DL_EN_B and DL_EN_B_well.

In the array of NVM cells depicted in FIG. 8A, column control signals comprise the data inputs referred to as D1 and D0 for the cell; row control signals comprise the row enable signals REN_1 and REN_0 and the row select signals RSB_1 and RSB_0. Other control signals may be also used, depending on the particular implementation.

In FIG. 8A, if the upper row (or cell) is being written to, a phenomenon may occur that is referred to as write disturb—changing of an already-programmed cell contents while writing a different cell. FIG. 8A illustrates the phenomenon of write disturb during a WRITE “1” DIRECTION 1 operation in which electrons are removed from the floating gate Fg₀₁. For voltages HV2 and/or HV4 (which may exhibit a ramping behavior), voltage values are illustrated that correspond to final voltage values. With the floating gate Fg₀₁ of the top row at −1V (for example) and the signal line REN_1 at 10V (for example), considerable removal of charge from the floating gate Fg₀₁ occurs. However, with the floating gate Fg₀₀ of the bottom row at −1V (for example) and the signal line REN_0 at 5V (for example), removal of charge from the floating gate Fg₀₀ also occurs, though reduced as compared to the removal of charge from the floating gate Fg₀₁. Also, with the floating gate Fg₁₀ of the bottom row at 11V (for example) and the signal line REN_0 at 5V, addition of charge to the floating gate Fg₁₀ also occurs, though reduced as compared to the removal of charge from the floating gate Fg₀₁.

FIG. 8B illustrates the phenomenon of write disturb during a WRITE “1” DIRECTION 0 operation in which electrons are added to the floating gate Fg₁₁. During this operation, write disturb also occurs, in the same manner as described in relation to FIG. 8A.

Referring to FIGS. 9A and 9B, write disturb may be reduced by, among other things, controlling the signal line REN of rows not being written to as a function of voltage values applied to the column signals lines D1 and D0. In one embodiment, the signal line REN of rows not being written to is controlled so as to carry a voltage value approximately (with a tolerance of 25%, for example) midway between the voltage values applied to the column signal lines D1 and D0. In FIG. 9A, with the voltage values of 5V and 0V being applied to the column signal lines D1 and D0, the signal line REN_0 is controlled so as to carry a voltage value of approximately 2.5V. In FIG. 9B, with the voltage values of 10V and 5V being applied to the column signal lines D1 and D0, the signal line REN_0 is controlled so as to carry a voltage value of approximately 7.5V. Write disturb is thereby reduced.

Various combined measures used to reduce write disturb, including controlling the signal line REN in the foregoing manner, are represented in TABLE II below:

TABLE II Condition DIR REN I REN II RSB I RSB II D1 I D1 II D0 I D0 II WRITE unselected 1 HV2 HV1 HV2 HV2 X X X X WRITE unselected 0 HV2 HV3 HV2 HV3 X X X X WRITE “1” 1 HV4 HV4 HV4 HV4 HV4 HV2 0 0 WRITE “1” 0 0 0 HV2 HV2 HV4 HV4 0 HV2 WRITE “0” 1 HV4 HV4 HV4 HV4 0 0 HV4 HV2 WRITE “0” 0 0 0 HV2 HV2 0 HV2 HV4 HV4

The effect of the improved biasing arrangement of FIGS. 9A and 9B is illustrated in FIGS. 10 and 11 during a sequence of a WRITE “1” DIRECTION 1 operation followed by a WRITE “1” DIRECTION 0 operation. The voltages HV1-HV4 may be chosen as shown in FIG. 2B, for example, in the center portion of the respective figures are shown voltage on the signals lines REN and RSB for the selected cell and for the unselected cell. In FIG. 10, without improved biasing, when REN and RSB of the unselected cell are at HV2 (e.g., 5V) and the signal line D1 is at HV4 (e.g., 10V), the disturb voltage is HV4/2 (e.g., 5V). In FIG. 11, with improved biasing, the disturb voltage is HV4/4 (e.g., 2.5V).

Because the present memory cell has only three wells, various cell layout possibilities are enabled that result in a more compact array layout. Two such possibilities are illustrated in FIG. 12 and FIG. 13, respectively. In FIG. 12, the cell is laid out horizontally, one floating gate well (e.g., a D0 well 1203 corresponding to a floating gate FG0) on the left and the other floating gate well (e.g., a D1 well 1205 corresponding to a floating gate FG1) on the right, with a REN well 1201 in the center. Respective contacts 1207, 1209 and 1211 contact the wells 1203, 1201 and 1205. A cell boundary 1220 determines how the cell is tiled to form an array of cells. When the cell is tiled, structures outside the cell boundary overlap with corresponding structures associated with neighboring cells such that the overlapping structures are shared. In FIG. 12, the cell is laid out vertically. The cell is assymetrical, with the floating gate wells 1303 and 1305 offset to one side of center, and the REN well 1301 offset to the opposite side of center.

Turning now to FIG. 14, an array 50 of NVM cells 48 is depicted which may operate in accordance with the voltages stated in Table II above. Smaller minimum feature sizes and reduced oxide thickness may reduce these voltage requirements somewhat. The array takes advantage of the asymmetry of the cell of FIG. 13 to achieve a compact layout. In this array 50 the REN signal is common for a given row while D1 and D0 timeshare a single line and are common for a given column. Sense amplifiers (or equivalent readout circuitry) is provided for each column and reads the output currents for the selected row.

In FIG. 14, each of the floating gates is number with an index having a first value corresponding to the number of a REN line used to read information from that floating gate and a second number corresponding to the number of a D1/D0 line used to write information to that floating gate. In the case of the cell 48, for example, the upper left floating gate FG<2,0> is so labeled because a REN<2> line is used to read information from that floating gate and a D1/D0<0> line is used to write information to that floating gate. Note that cells that would ordinarily belong to different rows are arrayed within the same row in alternating fashion. In the top row therefore, REN<2> cells and REN<3> cells are alternated. The resulting layout is more compact than other layouts that do not take advantage of this possibility.

Turning now to FIG. 15, a similar array 60 of NVM cells 58 is depicted which may operate in accordance with the voltages stated in Table II above. Whereas the array of FIG. 14 is assumed to be operated differentially, the array of FIG. 15 is assumed to be operated in single-ended fashion. The columns lines therefore, instead of being labeled in terms of D1 and D0 (denoting differential data), are labeled simply D. No physical change in the layout is required.

A method of operating the cells described herein includes applying the voltage signals set forth in exemplary TABLE I or exemplary TABLE II to the a cell like that of FIG. 1, FIG. 3 or FIG. 4. The voltages are typically developed on chip using charge pumps for minimum size. Charge pumps may provide static voltages, or, more effectively, ramped voltages as are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. In accordance with the claims set forth below, the “biasing” may be achieved with the control capacitor structure. The “charging” and “discharging” may be achieved with the tunneling capacitor structure to achieve Fowler-Nordheim tunneling. Note that the voltages set forth in TABLE I and TABLE II are exemplary voltages for use with devices built in a 0.18 micron minimum feature size logic CMOS fabrication process technology. As technology improves, minimum feature sizes steadily decrease until some possible fundamental physical limit is ultimately reached. As these sizes decrease, the voltages used will also decrease as the same electric field can be achieved with a smaller voltage over a correspondingly smaller distance. Thus, the voltages set forth in TABLE I and TABLE II are examples only and those of ordinary skill in the art will now realize that other voltages may be used where appropriate for the process technology used to fabricate the memory cells.

While embodiments and applications of this invention have been shown and described, it will now be apparent to those skilled in the art having the benefit of this disclosure that many more modifications than mentioned above are possible without departing from the inventive concepts disclosed herein. Therefore, the appended claims are intended to encompass within their scope all such modifications as are within the true spirit and scope of this invention. 

1. A non-volatile memory integrated circuit comprising a plurality of memory cells, each memory cell comprising: a first MOS transistor; a first control capacitor; a first floating gate coupled to the first MOS transistor and the first control capacitor; a first read/write control signal having at least a first state and a second state coupled to the first MOS transistor such that when the control signal is in the first state, the memory cell is configured for readout, and when the control signal is in the second state, the memory cell is configured for writing; a second MOS transistor; a second control capacitor; and a second floating gate coupled to the second MOS transistor and the second control capacitor; wherein the first read/write control signal having at least a first state and a second state is coupled to both the first MOS transistor and the second MOS transistor such that when the control signal is in the first state, the memory cell is configured for readout, and when the control signal is in the second state, the memory cell is configured for writing, and, wherein a memory cell comprises no more than three wells, the first floating gate being formed in a first well, the second floating gate being formed in a second well, and the first and second MOS transistors being formed in a third well.
 2. The apparatus of claim 1, comprising a control circuit for writing information to a memory cell in two non-concurrent phases, including a charge addition phase during which charge is added to one of the first and second floating gates through one of the first and second MOS transistors, and a charge removal phase during which charge is removed from an opposite one of the first and second floating gates through an opposite one of the first and second MOS transistors.
 3. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein the plurality of memory cells comprises at least two adjacent memory cells, the first read/write control signal being coupled to one of the two adjacent memory cells, further comprising a second read/write control signal coupled to another one of the two adjacent memory cells.
 4. The apparatus of claim 3, comprising: a first capacitor control signal coupled to the first control capacitor of each of the adjacent memory cells, the first capacitor control signal and the respective first floating gates of the adjacent memory cells determining respective voltages across the respective first control capacitors of the adjacent memory cells; and a second capacitor control signal coupled to the second control capacitor of each of the adjacent memory cells, the second capacitor control signal and the respective second floating gates of the adjacent memory cells determining respective voltages across the respective second control capacitors of the adjacent memory cells.
 5. The apparatus of claim 4, wherein the control circuit controls the first and second read/write control signals and the first and second capacitor control signals such that during writing of one of the two adjacent memory cells, a read/write control signal coupled to another one of the two adjacent memory cells is caused to be at a voltage approximately mid-way between a voltage of the first capacitor control signal and a voltage of the second capacitor control signal, to reduce possible disturbance of information stored in the other one of the two adjacent memory cells.
 6. The apparatus of claim 1, comprising multiple rows and multiple columns of memory cells, wherein the memory cells are tiled in adjacent columns with the memory cells in one of the adjacent columns being flipped about a long axis thereof.
 7. The apparatus of claim 6, wherein the memory cells are each laid out such that when a 4 column×2 row array of memory cells is formed, at least one area is formed in which exactly four adjoining memory cells share a well in which floating gates are formed, and at least two areas are formed in which exactly two adjoining memory cells share a well in which the first and second MOS transistors are formed.
 8. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the MOS transistors are p-type transistors.
 9. An integrated circuit RFID tag comprising: a non-volatile memory comprising a plurality of memory cells, each memory cell comprising: a first MOS transistor; a first control capacitor; a first floating gate coupled to the first MOS transistor and the first control capacitor; and a first read/write control signal having at least a first state and a second state coupled to the first MOS transistor such that when the control signal is in the first state, the memory cell is configured for readout, and when the control signal is in the second state, the memory cell is configured for writing; and a clock coupled to the non-volatile memory for enabling readout of information stored in the non-volatile memory during interrogation of the RFID tag.
 10. The apparatus of claim 9, wherein each of said plurality of memory cells comprises: a second MOS transistor; a second control capacitor; and a second floating gate coupled to the second MOS transistor and the second control capacitor; wherein the first read/write control signal having at least a first state and a second state is coupled to both the first MOS transistor and the second MOS transistor such that when the control signal is in the first state, the memory cell is configured for readout, and when the control signal is in the second state, the memory cell is configured for writing.
 11. The apparatus of claim 10, wherein a memory cell comprises no more than three wells, the first floating gate being formed in a first well, the second floating gate being formed in a second well, and the first and second MOS transistors being formed in a third well.
 12. The apparatus of claim 11, comprising a control circuit for writing information to a memory cell in two non-concurrent phases, including a charge addition phase during which charge is added to one of the first and second floating gates through one of the first and second MOS transistors, and a charge removal phase during which charge is removed from an opposite one of the first and second floating gates through an opposite one of the first and second MOS transistors.
 13. The apparatus of claim 12, wherein the plurality of memory cells comprises at least two adjacent memory cells, the first read/write control signal being coupled to one of the two adjacent memory cells, further comprising a second read/write control signal being coupled to another one of the two adjacent memory cells.
 14. The apparatus of claim 13, comprising: a first capacitor control signal coupled to the first control capacitor of each of the adjacent memory cells, the first capacitor control signal and the respective first floating gates of the adjacent memory cells determining respective voltages across the respective first control capacitors of the adjacent memory cells; a second capacitor control signal coupled to the second control capacitor of each of the adjacent memory cells, the second capacitor control signal and the respective second floating gates of the adjacent memory cells determining respective voltages across the respective second control capacitors of the adjacent memory cells.
 15. The apparatus of claim 14, wherein the control circuit controls the first and second read/write control signals and the first and second capacitor control signals such that during writing of one of the two adjacent memory cells, a read/write control signal coupled to another one of the two adjacent memory cells is caused to be at a voltage approximately mid-way between a voltage of the first capacitor control signal and a voltage of the second capacitor control signal, to reduce possible disturbance of information stored in the other one of the two adjacent memory cells.
 16. The apparatus of claim 10, comprising multiple rows and multiple columns of memory cells, wherein the memory cells are tiled in adjacent columns with the memory cells in one of the adjacent columns being flipped about a long axis thereof.
 17. The apparatus of claim 16, wherein the memory cells are each laid out such that when a 4 column×2 row array of memory cells is formed, at least one area is formed in which exactly four adjoining memory cells share a well in which floating gates are formed, and at least two areas are formed in which exactly two adjoining memory cells share a well in which the first and second MOS transistors are formed.
 18. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the MOS transistors are p-type transistors.
 19. A method of accessing a non-volatile memory comprising a plurality of memory cells, each memory cell comprising at least a first floating gate structure comprising a control capacitor, a MOS transistor and a floating gate coupled to the control capacitor and the MOS transistor, the method comprising: during reading, applying a first voltage to a channel electrode of the MOS transistor of the first floating gate structure; and during writing, applying at least a second different voltage to the channel electrode of the MOS transistor of the first floating gate structure, wherein each of said plurality of memory cells comprises said first floating gate structure and a second floating gate structure, each floating gate structure comprising a control capacitor, a MOS transistor and a floating gate coupled to the control capacitor and the MOS transistor, the method further comprising: during reading, applying the first voltage to a channel electrode of the MOS transistor of the first floating gate structure and the MOS transistor of the second floating gate structure; and during writing, applying at least the second different voltage to the channel electrode of the MOS transistor of the first floating gate structure and the MOS transistor of the second floating gate structure, the method further comprising writing information to a memory cell in two non-concurrent phases, including a charge addition phase during which charge is added to a floating gate of one of the first and second floating gate structures, through a corresponding MOS transistor, and a charge removal phase during which charge is removed from a floating gate of an opposite one of the floating gate structures, through a corresponding MOS transistor.
 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the charge addition phase and the charge removal phase are repeated multiple times for each bit of information being written.
 21. The method of claim 20, wherein during at least one of the charge addition phase and the charge removal phase, a voltage is applied to one of the floating gates structures as a voltage difference between a voltage of a first control signal and a voltage of one of a second control signal and a third control signal.
 22. The method of claim 21, wherein, in a succeeding repetition of the charge addition phase or the charge removal phase, the voltage of the first control signal and the voltage of the one of the second control signal and the third control signal are increased as compared to a preceding charge addition phase or charge removal phase, the voltage difference remaining substantially the same.
 23. The method of claim 21, comprising applying the same first control signal to each memory cell of a row of memory cells within an array of memory cells, and applying different first control signals to memory cells of different rows within the array of memory cells.
 24. The method of claim 23, comprising applying the same second and third control signals to each memory cell of a column of memory cells within the array of memory cells.
 25. The method of claim 24, comprising: writing to a selected memory cell in a column of memory cells, including varying the second and third control signals; and during writing of the first memory cell, varying a first control signal applied to a non-selected memory cell in an adjacent row.
 26. The method of claim 25, comprising, as the second and third control signals are varied, varying the first control signal applied to the non-selected memory cell in a coordinated manner to cause it to carry a voltage approximately mid-way between a voltage of the second control signal and a voltage of the third control signal, to reduce possible disturbance of information stored in the non-selected memory cell.
 27. An integrated circuit layout embodied in a machine readable medium, the integrated circuit layout comprising features defining: a first MOS transistor; a first control capacitor; a first floating gate coupled to the first MOS transistor and the first control capacitor; a first read/write control signal having at least a first state and a second state coupled to both the first MOS transistor such that when the control signal is in the first state, the memory cell is configured for readout, and when the control signal is in the second state, the memory cell is configured for writing; a second MOS transistor; a second control capacitor; and a second floating gate coupled to the second MOS transistor and the second control capacitor; wherein the first read/write control signal having at least a first state and a second state is coupled to both the first MOS transistor and the second MOS transistor such that when the control signal is in the first state, the memory cell is configured for readout, and when the control signal is in the second state, the memory cell is configured for writing and wherein a memory cell comprises features defining no more than three wells, the first floating gate being formed in a first well, the second floating gate being formed in a second well, and the first and second MOS transistors being formed in a third well.
 28. The integrated circuit layout of claim 27, comprising features defining a control circuit for writing information to a memory cell in two non-concurrent phases, including a charge addition phase during which charge is added to one of the first and second floating gates through a corresponding MOS transistor, and a charge removal phase during which charge is removed from an opposite one of the first and second floating gates through a corresponding MOS transistor.
 29. The integrated circuit layout of claim 28, wherein the plurality of memory cells comprises at least two adjacent memory cells, the first read/write control signal being coupled to one of the two adjacent memory cells, further comprising features defining a second read/write control signal coupled to another one of the two adjacent memory cells.
 30. The integrated circuit layout of claim 29, comprising features defining: a first capacitor control signal coupled to the first control capacitor of each of the adjacent memory cells, the first capacitor control signal and the respective first floating gates determining respective voltages across the respective first control capacitors of the adjacent memory cells; and a second capacitor control signal coupled to the second control capacitor of each of the adjacent memory cells, the second capacitor control signal and the respective second floating gates determining respective voltages across the respective second control capacitors of the adjacent memory cells.
 31. The integrated circuit layout of claim 30, wherein the control circuit controls the first and second read/write control signals and the first and second capacitor control signals such that during writing of one of the two adjacent memory cells, a read/write control signal coupled to another of the two adjacent memory cells is caused to be at a voltage approximately mid-way between a voltage of the first capacitor control signal and a voltage of the second capacitor control signal, to reduce possible disturbance of information stored in the other of the two adjacent memory cells.
 32. The integrated circuit layout of claim 27, comprising features defining multiple rows and multiple columns of memory cells, wherein the memory cells are tiled in adjacent columns with the memory cells in one of the adjacent columns being flipped about a long axis thereof.
 33. The integrated circuit layout of claim 32, wherein the memory cells are each laid out such that when a 4 column×2 row array of memory cells is formed, at least one area is formed in which exactly four adjoining memory cells share a well in which floating gates are formed, and at least two areas are formed in which exactly two adjoining memory cells share a well in which the first and second MOS transistors are formed.
 34. The integrated circuit design of claim 27, wherein the MOS transistors are p-type transistors.
 35. A nonvolatile memory cell, comprising: a first floating gate; a first pFET having gate, source, well and drain terminals, said gate terminal coupled to said first floating gate; a first control capacitor structure having a first terminal coupled to a first voltage supply node and a second terminal coupled to said first floating gate; a first readout switch coupled between said drain of said first pFET and a readout node, a control node of said readout switch coupled to a source of a readout enable signal; and a Vdd voltage supply node having a direct electrical connection to said source and well terminals of said first pFET, wherein: a control capacitance disposed between said first terminal of said first control capacitor structure and said second terminal of said first control capacitor structure exceeds a remaining capacitance between said first floating gate and other nodes of the nonvolatile memory cell.
 36. The nonvolatile memory cell of claim 35, wherein: said first control capacitor structure comprises a pFET having gate, source, well and drain terminals, said gate terminal coupled to said first floating gate and at least one of a source and a drain coupled to the well.
 37. A nonvolatile memory cell, comprising: a first floating gate; a second floating gate; a first pFET having gate, source, well and drain terminals, said gate terminal coupled to said first floating gate; a second pFET having gate, source, well and drain terminals, said gate terminal coupled to said second floating gate; a first control capacitor structure having a first terminal coupled to a first voltage supply node and a second terminal coupled to said first floating gate; a second control capacitor structure having a first terminal coupled to the second voltage supply node and a second terminal coupled to said second floating gate, a first readout switch coupled between said drain of said first pFET and a first readout node, a control node of said first readout switch coupled to a source of a readout enable signal; a second readout switch coupled between said drain of said second pFET and a second readout node, a control node of said second readout switch coupled to the source of the readout enable signal; and a Vdd voltage supply node having a direct electrical connection to said source and well terminals of said first and second pFET, wherein: a control capacitance disposed between said first terminal of said first control capacitor structure and said second terminal of said first control capacitor structure exceeds a remaining capacitance between said first floating gate and other nodes of the nonvolatile memory cell and a control capacitance disposed between said first terminal of said second control capacitor structure and said second terminal of said second control capacitor structure exceeds a remaining capacitance between said second floating gate and other nodes of the nonvolatile memory cell.
 38. The nonvolatile memory cell of claim 37, wherein: said first control capacitor structure comprises a pFET having gate, source, well and drain terminals, said gate terminal coupled to said first floating gate and at least one of the source and the drain coupled to the well; and said second control capacitor structure comprises a pFET having gate, source, well and drain terminals, said gate terminal coupled to said second floating gate and at least one of the source and the drain coupled to the well.
 39. An integrated circuit RFID tag comprising: a nonvolatile memory cell, comprising: a first floating gate; a first pFET having gate, source, well and drain terminals, said gate terminal coupled to said first floating gate; a first control capacitor structure having a first terminal coupled to a first voltage supply node and a second terminal coupled to said first floating gate; a first readout switch coupled between said drain of said first pFET and a readout node, a control node of said readout switch coupled to a source of a readout enable signal; and a Vdd voltage supply node having a direct electrical connection to said source and well terminals of said first pFET, wherein: a control capacitance disposed between said first terminal of said first control capacitor structure and said second terminal of said first control capacitor structure exceeds a remaining capacitance between said first floating gate and other nodes of the nonvolatile memory cell.
 40. The apparatus of claim 39, wherein: said first control capacitor structure comprises a pFET having gate, source, well and drain terminals, said gate terminal coupled to said first floating gate and at least one of a source and a drain coupled to the well.
 41. An integrated circuit RFID tag comprising: a first floating gate; a second floating gate; a first pFET having gate, source, well and drain terminals, said gate terminal coupled to said first floating gate; a second pFET having gate, source, well and drain terminals, said gate terminal coupled to said second floating gate; a first control capacitor structure having a first terminal coupled to a first voltage supply node and a second terminal coupled to said first floating gate; a second control capacitor structure having a first terminal coupled to the second voltage supply node and a second terminal coupled to said second floating gate, a first readout switch coupled between said drain of said first pFET and a first readout node, a control node of said first readout switch coupled to a source of a readout enable signal; a second readout switch coupled between said drain of said second pFET and a second readout node, a control node of said second readout switch coupled to the source of the readout enable signal; and a Vdd voltage supply node having a direct electrical connection to said source and well terminals of said first and second pFET, wherein: a control capacitance disposed between said first terminal of said first control capacitor structure and said second terminal of said first control capacitor structure exceeds a remaining capacitance between said first floating gate and other nodes of the nonvolatile memory cell and a control capacitance disposed between said first terminal of said second control capacitor structure and said second terminal of said second control capacitor structure exceeds a remaining capacitance between said second floating gate and other nodes of the nonvolatile memory cell.
 42. The apparatus of claim 41, wherein: said first control capacitor structure comprises a pFET having gate, source, well and drain terminals, said gate terminal coupled to said first floating gate and at least one of the source and the drain coupled to the well; and said second control capacitor structure comprises a pFET having gate, source, well and drain terminals, said gate terminal coupled to said second floating gate and at least one of the source and the drain coupled to the well. 